In a new study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine (Nilson et al., 2025), researchers reported “a linear dose-response association between the ultra-processed food consumption and all-cause mortality” when they examined official surveys previously undertaken in the United Kingdom (UK) and US, as well as Australia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Chile and Mexico. (Nilson et al., 2025;Campbell, 2025)
The researchers conducted a meta-analysis to assess the dose-dependent relationship between UPF [ultra-processed food] consumption and all-cause mortality. “All-cause premature death rates among adults were estimated in eight countries with relatively low (Colombia and Brazil), intermediate (Chile and Mexico), and high (Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the U.S) UPF consumption.” (Nilson et al., 2025;Bose, 2025)
Findings
A total of 239,982 participants and 14,779 deaths were considered for the dose-response meta-analysis that examined the association between the dietary share of ultra-processed foods and all-cause mortality. The pooled relative risk (RR) for a 10% increase in UPF on total energy intake was estimated to be 1.027.
A wide range of Population attributable fractions (PAFs) was observed in the selected countries based on their average ultra- processed food consumption. For example, Colombia, which reported lower ultra-processed food consumption, was associated with 3.9% PAFs, whereas the U.K. and U.S. reported higher PAFs at 14%.
The absolute number of premature deaths every year attributed to ultra-processed food consumption was between approximately 2,000 people in Chile and 124,000 individuals in the U.S. (Nilson et al., 2025; Bose, 2025)
Furthermore, these researchers noted that, “[w]hile 4%, 5% and 6% of premature deaths in Colombia, Brazil and Chile respectively are “attributable to UPF consumption,” the equivalent percentage is 10.9% in Canada, 13.7% in the US and 13.8% in England – the highest proportion among the eight countries.
“Premature deaths attributable to consumptions of ultra-processed foods increase significantly according to their share in individuals’ total energy intake. A high amount of UPF [ultra-processed food] intake can significantly affect health,” the researchers concluded. (Nilson et al., 2025; Campbell, 2025)
Death rates are highest in the countries where the population gets the largest amounts of total energy from eating UPF. In England that is 53.4%, according to the National Diet and Nutrition Survey undertaken in 2018-19. But it is even higher in the US – 54.5%.
The authors “first estimated a linear association between the dietary share of UPFs and all-cause mortality, so that each 10% increase in the participation of UPFs in the diet increases the risk of death from all causes by 3%,” said Eduardo Augusto Fernandes Nilson, the lead investigator of the study, from the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation in Brazil. While the burden of ill-health from UPF is highest in high-income countries, he noted that consumption of UPFs is growing in low- and middle-income nations. (Nilson et al., 2025; Campbell, 2025)
Stephen Burgess, a statistician in the MRC Biostatistics Unit at the UK’s University of Cambridge, said that while the study cannot prove the consumption of ultra-processed foods is harmful, “it does provide evidence linking consumption with poorer health outcomes.” (LaMotte, 2025)
“It is possible that the true causal risk factor is not ultra-processed foods, but a related risk factor such as better physical fitness — and ultra-processed foods is simply an innocent bystander,” said Burgess, who was not involved in the study, in a statement. “But, when we see these associations replicated across many countries and cultures, it raises suspicion that ultra-processed foods may be more than a bystander.” (LaMotte, 2025)
Conclusions
In conclusion, the findings of this recent research add to the growing body of evidence that links ultra- processed foods to a higher risk of both specific illnesses, and an increased risk overall of dying before age 75 (Campbell, 2025; Nilson et al., 2025) In the current study, the researchers reported a linear dose-response association between UPF consumption and all-cause mortality. Each 10% increase in UPF consumption corresponded to a 2.7% increased risk of all-cause mortality (Nilson et al., 2025;Bose, 2025).
Based on these results, the authors of this new study urge governments worldwide to introduce bold measures to reduce consumption of ultra-processed foods, including enhanced regulations of food marketing, and improved regulations on the sale of ultra-processed foods in schools and workplaces. The authors also recommend using fiscal policy, including taxes on ultra-processed food products, to reduce sales. (Nilson et al., 2025)
In a recent commentary published in the journal Brain Medicine, three medical doctors (MDs) identified dietary and lifestyle-based strategies that may reduce human exposure to microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs). This commentary was published shortly after a research study published in Nature Medicine reported that the human brain contains “approximately a spoon’s worth of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs).” (Fabiano et al., 2025; Nihart et al., 2025).
Exposure to microplastics and nanoplastics: Potential impact on human health
Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are ubiquitous in the environment, with current estimates indicating that 10-40 million tons are released into nature every year. Following their emission from numerous sources, wind and water can transport MNPs to contaminate food, water, and air, which can then reach humans through various routes. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025)
Previous in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that microplastics and nanoplastics (MNP) exposure leads to adverse health outcomes through inflammation, oxidative stress, altered biochemical/energy metabolism, immune dysfunction, impaired cell proliferation, carcinogenicity, disrupted metabolic pathways, and abnormal organ development.
Micoplastics and nanoplastics (MNP) exposure may also directly or indirectly impact various organs, including cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, immune, gastrointestinal, respiratory, renal, muscular, reproductive, and endocrine systems. For example, several in vivo studies have confirmed that microplastic accumulation in the brain causes learning and memory deficits, neuroinflammation, and lower levels of synaptic proteins. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025)
Can microplastics and nanoplastics enter the brain?
A recent Nature Medicine study (Nihart et al., 2025) reported that human brains may contain a significant amount of MNPs, with dementia patients exhibiting three—to five-fold greater microplastics and nanoplastics (MNP) accumulation as compared to healthy controls. These brain tissues were found to be more susceptible to MNPs, with an accumulation rate seven to thirty times greater than that of other organs like the liver and kidneys.
In this study, microplastics isolated from human brains were less than 200 nanometers (nm) in size, most of which originated from polyethylene materials. A 50% increase in MNP concentration was observed in the brains of humans who died in 2024 as compared to 2016, which reflects rising environmental MNP levels over the past 50 years.
It remains unclear whether dementia weakens the blood-brain barrier (BBB), thereby allowing more microplastics to enter the brain. Additional research is also needed to determine whether, after entering the brain, MNPs induce microinflammation that prevents the brain from efficiently clearing proteins that could aggravate neurodegeneration. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025)
Sources of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) exposure
Food and drink
Despite widespread contamination of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the environment, various strategies can be implemented to reduce the risk of MNP exposure. For example, replacing bottled water with tap water could significantly reduce microplastic exposure from 90,000 to 4,000 particles every year.
Seafood, alcohol, and highly processed foods are other common dietary sources of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs). For example, a recent study highlighted that chicken nuggets contain 30 times more microplastics per gram than chicken breasts. Thus, reducing the consumption of these food products may reduce microplastics and nanoplastics (MNP) exposure levels. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025)
One randomized controlled trial (RCT) that looked at depression outcomes showed that eliminating 21.76 servings/week of highly processed foods (often stored in plastics) had a reduction in depression > 1 effect size (Jacka et al., 2017). This study concluded that the reduction in depression was due to adherence to a more Mediterranean-style diet. However, as observed by Fabiano et al. (2025), it is possible that the diet also lowered microplastic intake, contributing to improved brain health, although this factor was not directly examined in this study. (Kwon et al., 2020)
Avoiding the use of tea bags (made with plastic) and plastic food storage containers may also help prevent MNP exposure. For a detailed list of microplastic-free tea bag options, see the information provided below from Green Choice Lifestyle:
26 Plastic-Free Tea Bag Brands Without Microplastics in 2025
Canned food products also serve as potential sources of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs), as demonstrated by a recent study reporting an over 1,000% rise in urinary bisphenol A (BPA) levels after five days of daily canned food consumption. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025) This finding “suggests that limiting canned food consumption and opting for non-plastic or BPA-free packaged alternatives can effectively reduce exposure. These BPA spikes’ duration and health impact remain unclear, warranting futher research.” (Fabiano et al., 2025)
Another effective strategy to reduce microplastic consumption could be avoiding heating food in plastic containers. Heating food in plastic containers, particularly in the microwave, may release up to 2.11 billion MNPs between for every square centimeter in just three minutes. Thus, replacing plastic with glass or stainless-steel containers could reduce MNP intake. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025)
Environmental factors
Current estimates indicate that male adults inhale over 62,000 particles each year, demonstrating inhalation’s significant role as a route of MNP exposure. Thus, the use of a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter capable of removing up to 99.97% of airborne particles as small as 0.3 μm may protect individuals from inhaling airborne microplastics. Importantly, additional research is needed to quantify the health benefits of HEPA filters in preventing MNP exposure in humans. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025)
Can microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) be eliminated from the body?
Existing evidence suggests that the human body is equipped with certain mechanisms to remove MNPs from the body. For example, one study found that 16 of 20 study participants had detectable levels of BPA in their sweat, which indicates that sweating could facilitate the removal of BPA and other plastic-derived compounds from the body.
It remains unclear whether sweating effectively reduces microplastic concentrations in the body. Additional studies are also needed to identify other potential approaches to supporting the elimination of MNPs from the body. (Bose, 2025; Fabiano et al., 2025)
For more information on how to limit microplastics in your daily life, see these helpful tips from Dr. Tracey Woodruff, PhD, MPH, Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, at the University of California, San Francisco, PhD, MPH. Dr. Woodruff has researched how synthetic chemicals that surround us in modern life may make us sick, such as those synthetic chemicals found in microplastics.
How do you try to avoid microplastics and other toxins in your family’s food?
I don’t microwave in plastic. Years ago, I put my kids’ plastic baby bottles in the microwave to warm up milk because I, like so many people, just thought everything I bought at the store was safe for all uses. Now, because of my research, I would never do that. Heat makes plastic release harmful chemicals like BPA so I always microwave in ceramic or glass – that’s a really easy one. Still, it just goes to show that the burden shouldn’t be on me as the consumer to figure out if products can be toxic.
I have a glass water bottle to avoid buying plastic water bottles. Steel water bottles are also a good choice.
I buy organic as much as possible to reduce our exposure to pesticides. We live in the Bay Area, so it’s fortunate that we can shop at farmers’ markets but not everyone can. That just, again, shows we need to have ways to encourage that everyone has access to healthy food options.
I don’t eat a lot of red meat. Many chemicals like to hang out in fatty food, so reducing your red meat intake is also a good way to reduce chemical exposures. There’s an added climate benefit too because eating a more plant-based diet has a lower carbon footprint – and can lower your blood pressure and cholesterol.
At home, we try to eat lower on the food chain in general, more grains, fruits, vegetables, because many toxic chemicals tend to accumulate in animals higher up in the food chain as those animals eat other animals or plants.
Did you trash all of your plastic food containers?
No. We have a mix of plastic and glass, and we try to store in glass when possible. I’ve talked to people who got rid of all their non-stick pans in one day. For most of us, it’s more realistic to replace things over time.
And of course, if you have small kids, it’s pretty difficult to get rid of plastic because that’s what you use to prevent accidents.
What are some non-toxic cleaning tips?
At home, we use baking soda and water or vinegar and water to clean – those perform equally as well as products you’d buy on the market. A good recipe is one part vinegar to one part water – just don’t mix it with chemical cleaners, like bleach, which can create deadly chlorine gas.
If you still want to buy cleaning products, you can look for products designated by the Environmental Protection Agency through their Safer Choice program. We also make sure that our vacuum has a HEPA filter to control dust.
How has your work influenced your community involvement?
I’ve learned that it’s really important to be engaged in holding the government accountable for these exposures because, for so many of them, you or I can’t do anything about them – only the government can regulate chemicals that make their way into our water, food and products we wear and put on our bodies. We should be able to go into a store and purchase an item and know that the government has made sure it’s safe for us and our families. The burden can’t be on consumers to navigate all of this. That’s why I also register to vote – that’s the other thing I do consistently.
Finally, be sure to learn more about the Global Plastics Treaty via the links included below:
Jacka FN, O’Neil A, Opie R, et al. A randomised controlled trial of dietary improvement for adults with major depression (the ‘SMILES’ trial). BMC Medicine. 2017;15(1):23. doi: 10.1186/s12916-017-0791-y.
Kwon J-H, Kim J-W, Pham TD, et al. Microplastics in Food: A review on analytical methods and challenges. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(1):6710. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17186710.
Nihart, A.J., Garcia, M.A., El Hayek, E. et al. Bioaccumulation of microplastics in decedent human brains. Nature Medicine. 2025;31:1114–1119. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03453-1
Winiarska E, Jutel M, Zemelka-Wiacek M. The potential impact of nano- and microplastics on human health: Understanding human health risks. Environmental Research. 2024;251(Pt 2):118535. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118535
A new research study published in the journal Appetite has found that carbon food labels can encourage consumers to switch from animal-based to plant-based foods. Globally, there is increasing interest in carbon food labelling, given its potential to nudge consumers towards more sustainable food choices.
Carbon Food Labeling: Closing The Knowledge Gap
Previous research has shown that consumers consistently underestimate the vast difference in greenhouse gas emissions between animal- and plant-based foods. For instance, producing one kilogram of beef emits 60kg of greenhouse gases, whereas producing the same quantity of peas emits just 1kg of greenhouse gases. However, most people think the gap between the two is much smaller.
This matters because collectively, our food choices have a big impact on climate change. Agriculture generates almost a third of global greenhouse gas emissions, with animal products being the biggest contributors. (Li, 2025; Cadario et al., 2025)
Making carbon labels more informative
A “carbon footprint” refers to the greenhouse gas emissions associated with a product. Most carbon labels follow a similar approach. They typically display a number representing greenhouse gas emissions, and a traffic-light system indicating the level of environmental impact from green (low) to red (high). But such labels do not indicate whether the food is animal- or plant-based. Hence, in this case, a high carbon score does not help consumers identify the source of the emissions. (Li, 2025; Cadario et al., 2025) See Figure 1 to view food carbon labels used elsewhere compared to the food carbon label used in the current study (the one on the far right).
Figure 1. The food carbon label maps the carbon footprint to the source of the food, whether plant or animal, along with information about the greenhouse gas emissions. (Cadario et al., 2025)
Cadario and colleagues designed a new type of label. It clearly displays whether the food is sourced mainly from animals or plants, along with the standard emissions score and traffic-light color code. This approach is especially useful for the growing segment of pre-prepared and packaged foods such as soups and other ready-to-eat meals, which often contain a mix of meat and plant-based food.
The new carbon food label used in this study (Cadario et al., 2025) creates a mental link between a food source and its carbon impact. When a consumer sees high carbon scores on food labels and red traffic lights appearing more frequently on meat and other animal products, they begin to make the connection between those products and higher emissions. This is key to addressing a lack of knowledge around food carbon emissions.
These researchers tested their carbon food label against existing labels in a series of experiments with 1,817 everyday consumers from Australia, the United States and the Netherlands. (Li, 2025; Cadario et al., 2025)
One experiment involved soup. Compared with the group exposed to the standard carbon label, the group exposed to the new carbon food label learned to associate animal-based soups with higher greenhouse gas emissions more effectively. The participants were more accurate at estimating the greenhouse gas emissions of a second batch of soups without labels.
This improved knowledge also translates to more climate-friendly food choices. In another experiment with Australian consumers, the researchers encouraged participants to choose five meals from ten options. Five were animal-based and five were plant-based. Half the participants saw the meal options with the carbon labels, and the other half did not see the carbon labels. The group exposed to the carbon labels chose fewer animal-based options in their weekly meal plan. See Figure 2 below for the different carbon labels that were presented to participants.
Figure 2. Providing information about the source of the food, whether plant or animal, influenced choices of meal plans.(Cadario et al., 2025)
In the final experiment conducted in the Netherlands, displaying the carbon label made university students more likely to choose the plant-based snack option rather than the animal-based option. (Li, 2025; Cadario et al., 2025)
What these results mean for consumers and businesses
A simple change to food labels may help consumers make more informed environmental choices. For businesses and policymakers, it shows displaying only carbon numbers isn’t enough – the food source is crucial.
Some forward-thinking restaurants and food companies are already experimenting with adding carbon labels to the menu to encourage diners to choose climate-friendly dishes. These study results suggest such an approach could be more effective when combined with these new carbon labels. (Li, 2025; Cadario et al., 2025)
References:
Cadario R, Li Y, Klesse A-K. Bridging the knowledge gap: Mapping carbon emissions to food items facilitates choices of plant-based over animal-based Items. Appetite. 2025;107910.
An informative and timely new editorial has been published in Nutrition & Dietetics (February 2025). The editorial is titled “A new approach to nutrition science is needed to address current food systems challenges” (Machado, 2025). Here, the author notes that:
“Promoting healthy and sustainable food systems for current and future generations is central in realising United Nations’ 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.1 There is expert consensus on the urgent need to address current unhealthy, unsustainable and unequitable food systems, as evidenced by over 100 global reports.44 Such action is also the first of six ‘pillars of action’ in the United Nations’ Decade of Action on Nutrition (2016–2025).1 Yet progress towards achieving this agenda has been slow. Current predominant nutrient-centric and biomedical paradigms underpinning nutrition science research, policy and practice no longer can address the complexity of contemporary food and nutrition challenges.45, 46 Responding to intertwined health, sustainability and equity issues requires a novel approach to nutrition science47–49 that: (i) acknowledges the shift in modern nutrition science from a reductionist approach to a holistic one, addressing the complexities that arise as nutrition exposures move from nutrients to foods to dietary patterns, within the ‘Food System Sustainability’ era. This also means that new methods are required to generate, synthesize and evaluate the body of nutrition evidence; (ii) considers power asymmetries in food systems and the role of UPFs in driving nutrition transition globally; and finally, (iii) integrates biological, environmental and social sciences, and culture- and context-specific, non-formal knowledge, including Indigenous knowledge.”
You can access the full editorial published in Nutrition & Dietetics at:
A new approach to nutrition science is needed to address current food systems challenges (2025)
Machado P. A new approach to nutrition science is needed to address current food systems challenges (2025). Nutrition & Dietetics. 2025;82(1): https://doi.org/10.1111/1747-0080.12923
February 10, 2025 is World Pulses Day 2025. The theme for World Pulses Day 2025 is, “Pulses: Bringing diversity to agrifood systems.”
Pulses bring diversity to our agrifood systems in multiple ways: on the farm, in our diets and through value-added products. They boost biodiversity on farms by enriching cropping systems with more species. With more than 100 types of pulses available, farmers have many options for crop rotations and/or intercropping. Consumers can enjoy pulses as part of healthy diets. They are an affordable, protein-rich food source (19–25 percent protein), packed with essential minerals, high in fiber, and low in fat. These edible seeds are highly versatile and can be processed into different products, such as flour for making bread and pasta, or even protein drinks. That means they provide a range of income opportunities.
Be sure to see this excellent resource from the UN FAO titled: A Guide to World Pulses Day 2025:
World Pulses Day presents a unique opportunity to raise public awareness about pulses and the fundamental role they play in the transformation to more efficient, inclusive, resilient and sustainable agrifood systems. Pulses are essential to increase diversity of agrifood systems and consequently improve their resilience. This “get started” guide highlights the theme for the Day in 2025: “Pulses: Bringing diversity to agrifood systems”, as well as key actions that everyone can take to celebrate the World Pulses Day. Building on the success of the International Year of Pulses in 2016, which was implemented by FAO, the United Nations General Assembly designated 10 February as World Pulses Day.
If you are looking for recipes to enjoy pulses during your meals, see this great resource from Chefs and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) where well-known Chefs share some of their favorite pulses recipes:
Pulses: nutritious seeds for a sustainable future(UN FAO, 2016)
A newly published report titled: “Grains of Truth 2024:Taste Price Optimism & Obstacles: Habit Convenience Health” reveals a mixed picture of progress and challenges in the global food system. The report highlights the growing interest in plant-based diets, with 68 percent of people worldwide expressing a desire to eat more plant-based foods. However, only 20 percent of global respondents report consuming plant-based foods on a regular basis, which is a slight decline from 23 percent in 2023. As noted in the newly released report, “This growing disparity underscores the need to address persistent barriers such as food affordability, flavor (taste), and accessibility to accelerate the much-needed shift towards healthy and sustainable diets that support people and planet.” (GlobeScan and EAT, January 30, 2025).
The new Grains of Truth 2024 Report was published by GlobeScan in partnership with EAT. (See Figure 1 below).
Figure 1: Grains of Truth 2024 – Taste Price Optimism & Obstacles: Habit Convenience Health
See Figure 2 for the frequency of healthy and plant-based food consumption over the past three years (from 2021-2024).
Figure 2: Frequency of Healthy and Plant-Based Food Consumption from 2021-2024
“The report emphasizes the importance of targeted action, including on issues such as subsidies for plant-based food production, investments in product innovation to improve taste and nutritional value, and localized education campaigns to address regional concerns. Consumers also see the need for greater transparency through clear labeling and third-party certifications to help build consumer trust and confidence in the sustainability claims of plant-based products.” (GlobeScan and EAT, January 30, 2025)
“The findings of this year’s report confirm the growing awareness of how food systems impact the health of people and the planet. However, barriers such as affordability, flavor, and access continue to stand in the way of progress. Governments, food producers, and other stakeholders must act boldly to ensure plant-based diets are affordable, appealing, and accessible for all.”
Dr. Gunhild Stordalen, EAT Co-founder and Executive Chair
“This report highlights a crucial moment in our global dietary shift. While consumers are ready for change, barriers like price, convenience, flavor, and trust remain. By uniting governments, food producers, and consumers, we can overcome these challenges and leverage plant-based diets to fight climate change and food insecurity. With the right policies and innovations, we can achieve a healthy, sustainable, and equitable world for all.”
Chris Coulter, GlobeScan CEO
About The Report
This is the fourth edition of the Grains of Truth report series, the global consumer initiative, which is conducted by GlobeScan in partnership with EAT.
This year the study looks at the impact of the cost of living on access and views on healthy and sustainable food, as well as the actors who can make the most change.
The report is based on insights from over 30,000 consumers across 31 markets.
You can access the full report at:
Grains of Truth 2024: Taste, Price, Optimism & Obstacles: Habit Convenience Health
A newly published review by Pashaei et al. (2024) concludes that the mushroom is a good nutritional and environmental meat substitute as it has less environmental impact, including lower carbon, water, and land footprints compared to red meat, including beef and mutton (lamb) (Pashaei et al., 2024).
Nutritional benefits of mushrooms
In terms of mushrooms’ nutritional benefits and adequacy, “The protein composition of mushrooms [is known] for its completeness and similarity to animal-based proteins. Mushrooms contain all nine essential aminos acids (EAAs), which are amino acids that the human body cannot synthesize and must obtain from food. (Pashaei et al., 2024).
Mushrooms offer a “complete protein profile with all essential aminos acids, making them a nutritionally valuable protein source,” including for vegetarians and vegans. (Pashaei et al., 2024). These authors further note that: “mushrooms have a high content of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA), which are typically found in higher quantities in animal-based proteins” (Pashaei et al., 2024). “BCAA [branched-chain amino acids] include leucine, isoleucine, and valine, and they are important for muscle growth and repair (Ayimbila et al., 2023; Pashaei et al., 2024).” “Mushrooms contain a variety of non-essential amino acids, including glutamic acid.” (On et al., 2021)
Mushrooms provide essential nutrients such as selenium, potassium, riboflavin, niacin, Vitamin D, and fiber, and they are low in calories, fat, and sodium (Pashaei et al., 2024). Mushrooms have also been associated with numerous nutraceutical properties, including the prevention and treatment of conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, hypertension and increased risk of stroke (Pashaei et al., 2024).
Potential health benefits of mushrooms
A reviewed by Singh et al. (2023) observed that: “edible medicinal mushrooms can be used as promising healthier meat alternatives as they provide natural meat texture, flavors and are also rich in proteins, essential amino acids, B-glucans, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, and antioxidants. Mushrooms have proven medicinal benefits including anticancer, immunomodulatory, antiviral, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties.”
Market demand for healthier meat alternatives is being driven by increased awareness among consumers about environmental sustainability and health concerns attributed to high meat intake. (Singh et al., 2023). In general, the need for meat alternatives is being driven because of growing concerns related to diet, health, environment and climatic factors (Singh et al., 2023).
Environmental benefits of mushrooms
See Figure 1 for the carbon footprint and water footprint of mushroom and red meat per kilogram (kg) (Pashaei et al., 2024).
Figure 1: Carbon footprint and water footpring of mushroom and red meat per kilogram (kg) (Pashaei et al., 2024)
Key motivators for consumption of meat alternatives/substitutes including mushrooms
The key motivating factors and demotivating factors for consumption of meat alternatives, including meat substitutes or analogs, are outlined in Figure 2 below. Thus, it is argued by Singh et al. (2023) that edible mushroom-based meat analogs have great potential since they have tremendous potential to target both meat eaters and non-meat eaters: meat eaters (traditional eaters), meat reducers (flexitarians) and meat avoiders (vegetarians and vegans). (Singh et al., 2023; Apostolidis & McLeay, 2016).
Figure 2: Key motivating factors and demotivating factors for consumption of meat alternatives, including meat sustitutes and analogs (Singh et al., 2023)
Affordability
In terms of barriers to mushroom consumption, although mushrooms are cheaper than red meat on a per-weight basis, they are more expensive when considering the amount of protein and energy provided. Hence, Pashaei et al (2024) concluded that although mushrooms may offer significant environmental and nutrition benefits as a meat substitute, mushrooms may not be a cost-effective option for all income groups. Therefore, these scientists recommend that governments adopt policies to utilize mushrooms as an economic meat alternative and source of protein for all consumers, including those who are low-income (Pashaei et al., 2024).
To get started with substituting meat for mushrooms in your meals, here are a few resources for a range of recipes that will help get you started in your journey to cooking dishes and delicious meals with mushrooms.
Pashaei KHA, Irankhah K, Namkhah Z, et al. Edible mushrooms as an alternative to animal proteins for having a more sustainable diet: a review. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition. 2024;43:205.
Singh U, Tiwari P, Kelkar S, et al. Edible mushrooms: A sustainable novel ingredient for meat analogs. eFood. 2023;4e122.
On JO, Bassey GA, Agba-M-IO, et al. Amino acids composition of some wild edible mushrooms from the southern cross river state, Nigeria. Asian J Biology. 2021;12(2):24-32.
Ayimbila F, Keawsompong S. Nutritional quality and biological application of mushroom protein as a novel protein alternative. Current Nutr Rep. 2023;12(2):290-307.
Apostolidis C, McLeay F. Should we stop meating like this? Reducing meat consumption through substitution. Food Policy. 2016;65:74-89.
“A national survey found that discarded frozen items make up about 6% of wasted household food in the United States. Based on frozen food’s relatively small contribution to food waste and other findings in the study, researchers say urging consumers to stock their freezers might be one way to prevent premature disposal of food.
Results showed that though overall food waste remained high, there was a bright spot: Freezing food was associated with less food landing in the trash.” (Caldwell, 2024; Xu and Roe, 2024)
“We found that households with home freezing behaviors are more likely to have less food waste than other households,” said Lei Xu, first author of the paper and a postdoctoral scholar specializing in agricultural and food economics at The Ohio State University. (Caldwell, 2024; Xu and Roe, 2024)
“Food waste is not just an economic loss—it also causes environmental damage because more than 90% of wasted food goes to the landfill, and this can produce greenhouse gas emissions,” Xu said. “The findings suggest that in the future, if we can encourage households to have home freezing behaviors, this small change in food storage habits can have a large environmental impact.”
“Xu completed the study with graduate student Ran Li and senior author Brian Roe, professor in the Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Development Economics at Ohio State. The research was published recently in the British Food Journal.” (Xu and Roe, 2024; Caldwell, 2024)
“Roe has been studying household food waste for years, but this is the first study to tease out where frozen food fits into the food waste picture. Recent estimates have suggested about 30% of food in the United States is wasted, but other research led by Roe suggests consumer food waste is trending upward.” (Caldwell, 2024; Xu and Roe, 2024)
“The fact that food waste is still increasing may suggest to policymakers that campaigns could be useful to educate households about balancing purchasing behavior and making the most of the food they buy,” Xu said.
“The current study data comes from frozen food-related questions added to the summer 2022 wave of the U.S. National Household Food Waste Tracking Survey in which 1,067 households participated. Respondents were asked to estimate the percentage of all discarded food in the previous seven days that had been frozen and whether it was bought frozen or was unfrozen and placed in the freezer later. They also reported the typical frequency of buying frozen foods.
The responses indicated that 85% of U.S. households buy frozen foods and among those, 55% of participants reported they purchased frozen food to reduce waste. Frozen food purchasers were more likely to shop infrequently—two to three times per month—and were more likely to be living in households with annual income of under $50,000. The most common categories of discarded frozen foods were meat (20% of total frozen food waste), vegetables (22%) and potatoes and grains (15% each).” (Caldwell, 2024; Xu and Roe, 2024)
“Based on what we’re seeing among households, we still have space to increase awareness to save food by using freezing behavior,” Xu said.
“Data showed a link between frequent home freezing and significantly less total food waste. Respondents most likely to freeze fresh items or extra food were aged 45 years and older and living in households of three or more people—a possible sign, the authors said, that consumers with a home freezing routine may be more experienced at managing meals for a group and motivated to avoid food waste.” (Caldwell, 2024; Xu and Roe, 2024)
What the team considered somewhat surprising—and enlightening—was the finding that about 30% more of wasted frozen food was discarded from the refrigerator than from the freezer.
“Thinking about why that happens, it might mean they don’t understand food storage techniques and don’t understand how long they should keep certain foods and where they should put it,” Xu said. “This suggests more explicit food storage instructions on food labels could educate consumers about how to correctly store foods to reduce waste.”
“Trends in the data suggest that consumer education about the freezer’s role in saving food could make a difference economically and environmentally, Xu said, and also help address the societal problem of food insecurity experienced by 10% of U.S. households.”
“Half of consumers buy frozen food to reduce waste. What about the other half?” she said. “We want to increase social awareness of how to save food, and explain how people use frozen food and home freezing techniques to save food. And freezing is one of the most accessible techniques because essentially all households have a refrigerator and freezer.” (Caldwell, 2024; Xu and Roe, 2024)
Below are some tips from the University of British Columbia (December 2024) for reducing food waste during the holiday season and all year round:
What are some tips for reducing food waste?
To get you started with reducing food waste, here are some simple tips to try:
Plan your meals, including planning to eat enough rather than to excess. This can be difficult during the holidays because we want to be good hosts by having lots of food, but having the perfect amount helps reduce waste
Eat more locally produced, plant-based foods including climate-friendly plants like millet and legumes
Search online recipes for dishes that use foods left over in your fridge
Commit to eating your leftovers and freeze portions early so they’re fresh—and before you get sick of them!
Share food with your neighbors or folks in your neighborhood who may be alone on the holidays
When eating meat, think about reducing the quantity and sourcing sustainable options
Freeze your vegetable scraps like onion skins, the ends of carrots, old herbs etc. to make yummy winter soup stock
Heavy Duty Bags for Freezing and Stacking Flat
Figure 1. Thick, reusable silcone bags can help prevent freezer burn
How can we foster more sustainable food habits this holiday season?
Composting and recycling are important. But ultimately, we need to consume less. You can see the waste you’re producing every week as well as your purchasing behaviors, which means you can identify how and what to change. Here are some ideas:
When grocery shopping, plan ahead and pick up raw ingredients and items with less plastic wrapping
Make cookies or candied nuts as a unique personal gift. This can help reduce our reliance on highly processed foods and support home-cooked foods
Consider switching to healthy beverages that contain less processed sugar, such as hot apple cider or iced tea (unsweetened)
Gift a cooking class or a second-hand cookbook to yourself or others to get inspired with creating new.
References
Xu, L., Li, R., Roe, B. Frozen food purchasing and home freezing of fresh foods: associations with household food waste.” British Food Journal. 2024;126(12): 4260-4276. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-02-2024-0147
Beans and peas rank best as meat and milk replacement from nutritional, health, environmental, and cost perspectives, a new study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) has found. “They outperformed processed products like veggie burgers and plant milks, but also lab-grown meat which ranked worst.” (Springmann, 2024; Environmental Institute for Change at the University of Oxford, 2024)
“The study, led by Dr Marco Springmann from the Environmental Change institute at the University of Oxford and the Institute for Global Health at University College London, combined nutrition, health, environmental, and cost assessments to compare the impacts of meat and milk with replacement products. The study assessed traditional products such as tofu and tempeh, processed alternatives such as veggie burgers and plant milks, prospective products such as lab-grown beef, as well as unprocessed foods such as soybeans and peas.
The findings show that unprocessed plant-based foods such as soybeans, peas, and beans are best suited for replacing meat and dairy. Choosing legumes over meat and milk would reduce nutritional imbalances in high-income countries like the UK, US, and Europe by half, mortality in particular from diet-related diseases by a tenth, the environmental impacts of diets such as greenhouse gas emissions, land use, and water use by more than half, and costs by more than a third.” (Springmann, 2024; Environmental Change Institute at the University of Oxford, December 2024)
Dr Springmann said:
“Reducing meat and dairy in high-income countries is essential for limiting climate change, biodiversity loss, and improving health. Our study shows that a range of foods and food products exist that would have multiple benefits when replacing meat and dairy in current diets.”
“Despite not being the front runner, processed plant-based foods such as veggie burgers and plant milks still resulted in substantial benefits when replacing meat and dairy, but the emissions reductions and health improvements were a fifth to a third less than when choosing unprocessed legumes, and costs to the consumer were a tenth higher than those of current diets.”(Springmann, 2024; Environmental Change Institute at the University of Oxford)
Dr Springmann added:
“Unprocessed legumes such as peas and beans were the clear winner in our assessment. They performed well from all perspectives, including nutritional, health, environmental, and cost. But a surprising runner-up was tempeh, a traditional Indonesian food made from fermented soybeans, which retains much of the nutritional properties of soybeans without much processing or additives. This and the relatively low cost gave it an edge over more processed alternatives such as veggie burgers.” (Springmann, 2024; Environmental Change Institute at the University of Oxford, December 2024)
Soybeans and peas for the win
“The study, published in [the scientific journal, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences] PNAS, compares how replacing meat and dairy with plant alternatives would impact nutrition, health, economics and the environment. “
“We considered comparisons along multiple and complementary units of measurement, including per serving and calorie; and we included comparisons per product as well as per overall diets in dedicated replacement analyses,” details the report.
The study states that unprocessed plant-based foods “were the best overall performers for replacing meat and dairy in high-income countries.” Obtaining the same levels of calories from peas and soybeans instead of animal products reduced nutritional imbalances (48%), mortality (11%), food-related greenhouse gas emissions (60%), land use (56%), water use (43%) and diet costs (41%).
Processed alternatives such as veggie burgers and soy milk did not have the same benefits in health, costs and greenhouse gas emissions, but they were linked to reduced land and water use. Moreover, the research links these products to 33% greater improvements in nutritional imbalances by complementing nutrients, such as vitamin B12.” (van Hal, 2024; Springmann, 2024)
Nutrient intake of plant-based foods
“The University of Oxford research assessed the intake of various macro- and micronutrients, focusing on key nutrients where people generally fail to meet recommendations. Switching to plant-based foods helped reduce mortality (5–6%) and lower nutritional imbalances from 10% to 5–6%.”
“The main nutrient changes were lower saturated fat intake (41%) and increases in fiber (20%) and potassium (12%). The study also found smaller reductions in zinc (8%), vitamin A (6%) and vitamin B12 (4%) intake. “
“Soybeans, peas and beans were the plant-based products most strongly linked to these health benefits, followed by veggie burgers, tempeh, veggie sausages and tofu. Soybeans, almonds, almond milk, oat milk and soy milk offer the largest reductions in nutritional imbalances among milk alternatives.” (van Hal, 2024; Springmann, 2024)
“The study calls for supportive public policies and food environments to increase consumption of plant-based alternatives. Although unprocessed plant-based foods performed best in the assessment, the author cautions that replacing meats with soybeans could increase nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin B12.
Moreover, many processed meat alternatives are classified as ultra-processed foods, which have been linked to overeating and weight gain in randomized controlled trials.” (van Hal, 2024; Springmann, 2024)
Increasing uptake
“The author expects that increasing uptake of assessed plant-based alternatives might be contingent on supportive public policies and food environments.”
“Increasing consumption of legumes, for example, could benefit from public information campaigns such as national guidelines outlining how they can form part of healthy and sustainable meals, alignment of agricultural subsidies and business approaches that focus less on single products, but on integrating legumes in meals and diets,” reads the report.
“The high prices of processed plant-based foods limit consumers’ uptake of them. In addition to scaling and improving production, the study suggests that a “true cost approach,” integrating health and environmental costs into prices, could help signal meat and dairy’s health and environmental benefits.”
The study also warns that replacing all meat and dairy with one or two alternative foods could increase pressures on natural resource use. “Adopting a whole diet perspective could address such issues of overreliance by diversifying replacement foods and balancing nutritional, environmental and cost aspects at the level of diets and meals,” it concludes.” (van Hal, 2024; Springmann 2024)
See the link below for a quick vegetarian version of the Brazilian national dish known as feijoada. This vegetarian stew entices the eye with the colorful contrast of black beans and sweet potatoes and pleases the palate with nourishing ingredients. Perfect for any family dinner or celebration with guests!
Springmann M. A multicriteria analysis of meat and milk alternatives from nutritional, health, environmental, and cost perspectives. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2024;121(50):e2319010121. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2319010121.
In a 30-year study of American adults published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Glenn et al., 2024), “researchers found that individuals who consumed the highest ratio of plant-based protein to animal-based protein had a 19% lower risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and a 27% lower risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) compared to those with the lowest ratio. The findings suggest that a plant-to-animal protein ratio of at least 1:2 is effective in preventing CVD, while an even higher ratio of 1:1.3 may be necessary to protect against CHD.” (Ionescu, 2024; Glenn et al., 2024)
Plant protein and heart health
“The research is the first of its kind to investigate how the specific ratio of plant to animal protein impacts heart health.
“The average American eats a 1:3 plant to animal protein ratio. Our findings suggest a ratio of at least 1:2 is much more effective in preventing CVD. For CHD prevention, a ratio of 1:1.3 or higher should come from plants,” said Glenn.” (Ionescu, 2024; Glenn et al., 2024)
Three decades of data
“The researchers analyzed 30 years of dietary, lifestyle, and heart health data from nearly 203,000 men and women enrolled in the Nurses’ Health Studies I and II and the Health Professionals’ Follow-up Study.
Participants reported their dietary intake every four years. The team calculated each participant’s total daily protein intake in grams, as well as their specific consumption of animal and plant proteins.
During the study period, there were 16,118 documented cases of CVD, including over 10,000 CHD cases and more than 6,000 stroke cases.” (Ionescu, 2024; Glenn et al., 2024)
Risk reduction with plant proteins
After adjusting for participants’ health history, demographic, and lifestyle factors, the study found that a higher ratio of plant to animal protein was associated with lower risks of CVD and CHD.
Compared to those who consumed the lowest plant-to-animal protein ratio (~1:4.2), individuals with the highest ratio (~1:1.3) experienced a 19% reduction in CVD risk and a 27% reduction in CHD risk.
These benefits were even greater among participants who consumed more protein overall. Those who obtained 21% of their energy from protein and maintained a higher plant-to-animal protein ratio saw a 28% lower risk of CVD and a 36% lower risk of CHD, compared to those consuming 16% of their energy from protein.” (Ionescu, 2024; Glenn et al., 2024)
Substituting meat with plant-based sources
“No significant associations were found between stroke risk and the protein ratio; however, substituting red and processed meats with plant-based sources like nuts was linked to a reduced risk of stroke.
The researchers explored whether there is a point where increasing plant protein intake no longer provides additional benefits or could have negative effects.
They found that the risk reduction for CVD begins to level off around a 1:2 ratio of plant to animal protein, but the risk of CHD continues to decrease at higher ratios.” (Ionescu, 2024; Glenn et al., 2024)
Dietary changes for heart health
“According to the researchers, these risk reductions are likely due to replacing red and processed meats with plant protein sources, especially nuts and legumes.”
“Such dietary changes have been shown to improve cardiometabolic risk factors like blood lipid levels, blood pressure, and inflammatory biomarkers. Plant proteins are often rich in fiber, antioxidant vitamins, minerals, and healthy fats, which contribute to these benefits.”
“Most of us need to begin shifting our diets toward plant-based proteins,” said senior author Frank Hu, Fredrick J. Stare Professor of Nutrition and Epidemiology at Harvard Chan School.
“We can do so by cutting down on meat, especially red and processed meats, and eating more legumes and nuts. Such a dietary pattern is beneficial not just for human health but also the health of our planet.”
“The researchers emphasized that the ratios identified are estimates, and additional studies are necessary to determine the optimal balance between plant and animal protein. Further research is also needed to understand how protein intake may affect stroke risk.” (Ionescu, 2024; Glenn et al., 2024)
Glenn AJ, Wang F, Tessier AJ, Manson JE, Rimm EB, Mukamal KJ, Sun Q, Willett WC, Rexrode KM, Jenkins DJ, Hu FB. Dietary plant-to-animal protein ratio and risk of cardiovascular disease in 3 prospective cohorts. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2024;120(6): 1373-1386
Sustainable RDN 